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Mammals rose to prominence in terrestrial ecosystems after the Cretaceous–Paleogene mass extinction, but the mammalian lineages characteristic of Paleogene faunas began their evolutionary and ecological diversification in the Late Cretaceous, stimulated by the rise of angiosperms (flowering plants) according to the preeminent hy- pothesis. The Cretaceous rise of mammals is part of a larger expansion in biodiversity on land that has been termed the Cretaceous (or Angiosperm) Terrestrial Revolution, but the mechanisms underlying its initiation remain opaque. Here, we review data from the fossil and rock records of western North America—due to its relatively continuous fossil record and complete chronology of mountain-building events—to explore the role that tectonism might have played in catalyzing the rise of modern-aspect terrestrial biodiversity, especially that of mammals and angiosperms. We highlight that accelerated increases in mammal and angiosperm species richness in the Late Cretaceous, ca. 100–75 Ma, track the acceleration of tectonic processes that formed the North American Cordillera and occurred during the ‘middle-Cretaceous greenhouse’ climate. This rapid increase in both mammal and angiosperm diversity also occurred during the zenith of Western Interior Seaway trans- gression, a period when the availability of lowland habitats was at its minimum, and oscillatory transgression- regression cycles would have frequently forced upland range shifts among lowland populations. These changes to both landscapes and climates have all been linked to an abrupt, global tectonic-plate ‘reorganization’ that occurred ca. 100 Ma. That mammals and angiosperms both increased in species richness during this interval does not appear to be a taphonomic artifact—some of the largest spikes in diversity occur when the available mammal-bearing fossil localities are sparse. Noting that mountainous regions are engines for generating biodi- versity, especially in warm climates, we propose that the Cretaceous/Angiosperm Terrestrial Revolution was ultimately catalyzed by accelerated tectonism and enhanced via cascading changes to landscapes and climate. In the fossil record of individual basins across western North America, we predict that (1) increases in mammalian diversity through the Late Cretaceous should be positively correlated with rates of tectonic uplift, which we infer to be a proxy for topographic relief, and are attended by increased climate heterogeneity, (2) the diversity of mountain-proximal mammalian assemblages should exceed that of coeval mountain-distal assemblages, espe- cially in the latest Cretaceous, and (3) endemism should increase from the latest Cretaceous to early Paleogene as Laramide mountain belts fragmented the Western Interior. Empirical tests of these predictions will require increased fossil collecting in under-sampled regions and time intervals, description and systematic study of existing collections, and basin-scale integration of geological and paleontological data. Testing these predictions will further our understanding of the coevolutionary processes linking tectonics, climate, and life throughout Earth history. 

Clumped isotope paleothermometry using pedogenic carbonates is a powerful tool for investigating past climate changes. However, location‐specific seasonal patterns of precipitation and soil moisture cause systematic biases in the temperatures they record, hampering comparison of data across large areas or differing climate states. To account for biases, more systematic studies of carbonate forming processes are needed. We measured modern soil temperatures within the San Luis Valley of the Rocky Mountains and compared them to paleotemperatures determined using clumped isotopes. For Holocene‐age samples, clumped isotope results indicate carbonate accumulated at a range of temperatures with site averages similar to the annual mean. Paleotemperatures for late Pleistocene‐age samples (ranging 19–72 ka in age) yielded site averages only 2°C lower, despite evidence that annual temperatures during glacial periods were 5–9°C colder than modern. We use a 1D numerical model of soil physics to support the idea that differences in hydrologic conditions in interglacial versus glacial periods promote differences in the seasonal distribution of soil carbonate accumulation. Model simulations of modern (Holocene) conditions suggest that soil drying under low soilpCO₂favors year‐round carbonate accumulation in this region but peaking during post‐monsoon soil drying. During a “glacial” simulation with lowered temperatures and added snowpack, more carbonate accumulation shifted to the summer season. These experiments show that changing hydrologic regimes could change the seasonality of carbonate accumulation, which in this study blunts the use of clumped isotopes to quantify glacial‐interglacial temperature changes. This highlights the importance of understanding seasonal biases of climate proxies for accurate paleoenvironmental reconstruction.

 

The δ18O of carbonate minerals that formed at Earth’s surface is widely used to investigate paleoclimates and paleo-elevations. However, a multitude of hydrologic processes can affect δ18O values, including mixing, evaporation, distillation of parent waters, and carbonate growth temperatures. We combined traditional carbon and oxygen isotope analyses with clumped (Δ47) and triple oxygen isotopes (Δ′17O) analyses in oyster shells (Acutostrea idriaensis) of the Goler Formation in southern California (USA) to obtain insights into surface temperatures and δ18O values of meteoric waters during the early Eocene hothouse climate. The Δ47-derived temperatures ranged from 9 °C to 20 °C. We found a correlation between the δ18O of growth water (δ18Ogw) (calculated using Δ47 temperatures and δ18O of carbonate) and the δ13C values of shells. The Δ′17O values of shell growth waters (0.006‰–0.013‰ relative to Vienna standard mean ocean water–standard light Antarctic precipitation [VSMOW-SLAP]) calculated from Δ′17O of carbonate (–0.087‰ to –0.078‰ VSMOW-SLAP) were lower than typical meteoric waters. These isotopic compositions are consistent with oyster habitation in an estuary. We present a new triple oxygen isotope mixing model to estimate the δ18O value of freshwater supplying the estuary (δ18Ofw). The reconstructed δ18Ofw of –11.3‰ to –14.7‰ (VSMOW) is significantly lower than the δ18Ogw of –4.4‰ to –9.9‰ that would have been calculated using “only” Δ47 and δ18O values of carbonate. This δ18Ofw estimate supports paleogeographic reconstructions of a Paleogene river fed by high-elevation catchments of the paleo–southern Sierra Nevada. Our study highlights the potential for paired Δ47 and Δ′17O analyses to improve reconstructions of meteoric water δ18O, with implications for understanding ancient climates and elevations.